Heparin -- a blood thinner, a pharmaceutical product -- starts out in artisanal workshops like this in China, because the active ingredient comes from pigs' intestines.
I can sprinkle a few cells, stem cells from the patient's own hip, a little bit of genetically engineered protein, and lo and behold, leave it for four months and the face is grown.
(Laughter) They buy these seaweed-based snacks there called Veggie Booty with Kale, which is for kids who come home and say, "Mom, mom, I want a snack that'll help prevent colon-rectal cancer."
I gave a talk, and a family friend who happened to be the Dean of Georgetown Medical School was at the talk, and came up to me afterwards saying, they were doing a study of ileal transplants in people.
And so I started a collaboration with this person, Michael Zasloff and Thomas Fishbein, to look at the microbes that colonized these ilea after they were transplanted into a recipient.
They take the donor ileum, which is filled with microbes from a donor and they have a recipient who might have a problem with their microbial community, say Crohn's disease, and they sterilized the donor ileum.
So they actually switched to leaving some of the microbial community in the ileum. They leave the microbes with the donor, and theoretically that might help the people who are receiving this ileal transplant.
And what the DNA sequencing technologies are allowing people to do now is do detailed studies of, say, 100 patients who have Crohn's disease and 100 people who don't have Crohn's disease.
And one thing that stood out to me was a statistic that said that the number of people in the United States with chronic wounds exceeds the number of people with breast cancer, colon cancer, lung cancer and leukemia, combined.
次は 細胞の塊が 原腸を形成し そこから 他の組織を 作ってほしいと思っています
We now want this ball of cells to start to gastrulate, to turn in so that it will produce the other tissues.
And we've put intestinal human cells in a gut on a chip, and they're under constant peristaltic motion, this trickling flow through the cells, and we can mimic many of the functions that you actually would expect to see in the human intestine.
Indeed, one wonders that without a duty of care, how many people would have had to suffer from gastroenteritis before Stevenson eventually went out of business.
This is truly amazing because it suggests that we can pilot therapies by trying them out in a whole bunch of different mice with individual people's gut communities and perhaps tailor those therapies all the way down to the individual level.
Four of those patients are about to get a transplant from that healthy donor at the bottom, and what you can see is that immediately, you have this radical change in the gut community.
でも この錠剤が頭痛に 効果をもたらすために 最初に胃 そして腸や その他様々な内臓器官を通ります
But for this pill to get to your head, where the pain is, it goes through your stomach, intestines and various other organs first.
And they include terrible things -- debilitating muscle and joint pain, gastrointestinal distress -- but now you're thinking, "Five percent, not very likely it's going to happen to me, I'll still take the drug."
Variations in things like enzyme levels, gut bacteria, and even intestine length, means that every individual's ability to extract energy from food is a little different.
The bacteria in our guts can break down food the body can't digest, produce important nutrients, regulate the immune system, and protect against harmful germs.
We don't yet have the blueprint for exactly which good bacteria a robust gut needs, but we do know that it's important for a healthy microbiome to have a variety of bacterial species.
After just two weeks on the high-fat, low-fiber, Western-style diet, the rural African group showed increased inflammation of the colon, as well as a decrease of butyrate.
This might explain why we don't feel itching inside our bodies, like in our intestines, which is safe from these external threats, though imagine how maddening that would be.
I dream that one day, instead of going into an expensive screening facility to get a colonoscopy, or a mammogram, or a pap smear, that you could get a shot, wait an hour, and do a urine test on a paper strip.
Now I know this sounds like a dream, but in the lab we already have this working in mice, where it works better than existing methods for the detection of lung, colon and ovarian cancer.
He told me that everything -- the fevers, the sore throats, the sinus infection, all of the gastrointestinal, neurological and cardiac symptoms -- were being caused by some distant emotional trauma that I could not remember.
Surprisingly, this receptor was found to respond to chemicals called short-chain fatty acids that are produced by the bacteria that reside in your gut -- your gut microbiota.
Now, when I was growing up, he used to tell me stories about how he used to bayonet people, and their intestines would fall out, but they would keep running.
(Laughter) And this would be the moment when the enthusiasm trickled, and it would maybe also get, like, awkwardly silent in the room, and I would think this was terribly sad, because I do believe our bowels are quite charming.
And the nervous system of our gut is so complex that when we cut out a piece, it's independent enough that when we poke it, it mumbles back at us, friendly.
This is because our small intestine is actually a huge neat freak, and it takes the time in between digestion to clean everything up, resulting in those eight meters of gut -- really, seven of them -- being very clean and hardly smelling like anything.
And it also makes sense that people who have conditions like irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel disease have a higher risk of having anxiety or depression.
Because I don't care if it's the secretary of HHS who's saying, "Hmm, I'm not going to take the evidence of my experts on mammograms, " or some cancer quack who wants to treat his patient with coffee enemas.
Over 15 percent of the deaths among adults and children occurred because of intestinal parasites and diarrhea from dirty water and inadequate sanitation -- all entirely preventable and treatable.
And, aside from the radically increased production and huge cost savings -- for example, the E. coli method I just talked about -- look at the time saved: this would be lives saved.
（笑） 私と同体重の 霊長類の腸に比べ 私と同体重の 霊長類の腸に比べ 六割に縮みました
(Laughter) But it shrunk to 60 percent of primate gut of my body mass.
But what it means to have a brain there is that, not only the big brain has to talk with the food, the food has to talk with the brain, because we have to learn actually how to talk to the brains.
The lower layer, our gut brain, has its own goals -- digestion defense -- and we have the higher brain with the goal of integration and generating behaviors.
The big brain integrates signals, which come from the running programs of the lower brain, But subsumption means that the higher brain can interfere with the lower.
興味深いのは 下層である 腸で 消化できるものが 未消化のままあると 信号はどんどん 強くなります
Now the interesting thing is that, along this lower layer -- this gut -- the signal becomes stronger and stronger if undigested, but digestible, material could penetrate.
Now if we could take this language -- and this is a language of structures -- and make it longer-lasting, that it can go through the passage of the intestine, it would generate stronger signals.
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I shoot you with 50, 000 volts which may cause respiratory failure, organ malfunction, internal burns, and loss of bowel and bladder control. 